Peru
| Republic of Peru |
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(and Peru's largest city) |
Source information is available at [ Sources ] |
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country, with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from the north to the southeast to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River. Peru's population is over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima. At 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the 19th largest country in the world and the third largest in South America.
Peruvian territory was home to several cultures during the ancient and medieval periods. It has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 10th millennium BCE. Notable pre-colonial cultures and civilizations include the Caral–Supe civilization (the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of the cradles of civilization), the Nazca culture, the Wari and Tiwanaku empires, the Kingdom of Cusco, and the Inca Empire, the largest known state in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. Charles V established a viceroyalty with the official name of the Kingdom of Peru, encompassing most of its South American territories, with its capital in Lima. Higher education started in the Americas with the official establishment of the National University of San Marcos in Lima in 1551.
Peru formally proclaimed independence from Spain in 1821, and following the military campaigns of Bernardo O'Higgins, José de San Martín, and Simón Bolívar, as well as the decisive battle of Ayacucho, it completed its independence in 1824. In the ensuing years, the country first suffered from political instability until relative economic and political stability began due to the exploitation of guano that ended with the War of the Pacific (1879–1884). Throughout the 20th century, Peru grappled with political and social instability, including the internal conflict between the state and guerrilla groups interspersed with periods of economic growth. Implementation of Plan Verde shifted Peru towards neoliberal economics under the authoritarian rule of Alberto Fujimori and Vladimiro Montesinos in the 1990s, with the former's political ideology of Fujimori leaving a lasting imprint on the country's governance that continues today. The 2000s marked economic expansion and poverty reduction. Still, the subsequent decade revealed long-existing sociopolitical vulnerabilities, exacerbated by a political crisis instigated by Congress and the COVID-19 pandemic, precipitating unrest in 2022.
The sovereign state of Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture, fishing, and other growing sectors such as telecommunications and biotechnology. The country forms part of The Pacific Pumas, a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that share common positive growth trends, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance, and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high in social freedom; it is an active member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Pacific Alliance, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, and the World Trade Organization and is considered a middle power.
Peru's population includes Mestizos, Amerindians, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. The primary language is Spanish, although many Peruvians speak Quechuan, Aymara, or other Indigenous languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in diverse expressions in art, cuisine, literature, and music.
Pre-History and Pre-Columbian Peru
The earliest evidence of human presence in Peruvian territory dates to approximately 12,500 BCE in the Huaca Prieta settlement. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organizations relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money. Peru's oldest known complex society, the Caral/Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed primarily around Peru's coastal and Andean regions. The Cupisnique culture flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE along Peru's Pacific coast and was an example of early pre-Inca culture.
The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BCE was probably more religious than political, with its spiritual center in Chavín de Huantar. After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century CE, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the Paracas, Nazca, and Wari civilizations and the more outstanding Chimu and Moche.
The Moche, who reached their apogee in the first millennium CE, were renowned for their irrigation system, which fertilized their arid terrain, sophisticated ceramic pottery, lofty buildings, and clever metalwork. The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as a loose confederation of walled cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru, the Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450. Their capital was at Chan Chan, outside of modern-day Trujillo. In the highlands, the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia, and the Wari culture, near the present-day city of Ayacucho, developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 CE.
In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state that, in a century, formed the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas, with their capital in Cusco. The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, the Quechuas. Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they expanded and incorporated their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of the fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperor Pachacuti. Under his authority and that of his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui, the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire. He consolidated his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as the God of the Sun, who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The empire's official language was Quechua, although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Incas referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most concerning local sacred Huacas. Still, the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti, the sun god, and imposed its sovereignty above other cults, such as Pachamama. The Incas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, the "child of the sun."
- Wikipedia article: History of Peru
Spanking and Spanking Art in Peru
In the 20th century, school corporal punishment fell out of fashion and was gradually banned in many countries, a trend that continues until the present day.
As of May 2008, Peru permits corporal punishment in schools.
( We have no further information from SAOTK as of Oct, 2024 )
Peruvian JCP from Corpun.com
There is no official JCP in Peru and, as far as can be ascertained, no history of it at the national level. However, indigenous or local communities in some areas carry out whippings, notably in the northern region of Cajamarca. As in some other South American countries, these often have the tacit approval of the authorities, or at least little or no action is generally taken against those who carry them out.
This illustrated article, published on Aljazeera.com in July 2016, focuses on Cajamarca's local judicial system, or "rondas" (typically rendered in English as "rounds," but a better translation is probably "patrols"). It includes public or semi-public punishments with a stiff whip called a "binza" made from braided bull's pizzles.
Offenses so punished have included adultery, robbery or theft, brothelkeeping, and assault.
Prostitution in Peru
- Prostitution in Peru ↗ on Wikipedia
External links
- More information is available at [ Wikipedia:Peru ]
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