Hysteria

Psychology
- Hysteria

Hysteria refers to an overwhelming emotional state and can indicate a fleeting mental condition. During the nineteenth century, it was perceived as a specific physical ailment affecting women. This diagnosis stemmed from the belief that women are more susceptible to mental and behavioral issues, reflecting interpretations of gender differences in stress reactions. By the twentieth century, hysteria evolved into a recognized mental illness. Notable researchers like Sigmund Freud and Jean-Martin Charcot focused their studies on patients with hysteria.

Currently, most physicians do not accept hysteria as a medical diagnosis. The blanket diagnosis of hysteria has been fragmented into myriad medical categories such as epilepsy, histrionic personality disorder, conversion disorders, dissociative disorders, or other medical conditions. Furthermore, lifestyle choices, such as choosing not to wed, are no longer considered symptoms of psychological disorders such as hysteria.

History

The term hysteria stems from the Greek word for uterus, hystera. The earliest documentation of hysteria can be traced back to 1900 BCE, when Egyptians noted behavioral irregularities in adult women on the Kahun Papyrus. They attributed these disturbances to a wandering uterus, leading to the eventual naming of the condition as hysteria. To remedy hysteria, Egyptian physicians recommended various treatments. For instance, they applied strong-smelling substances to patients' vulvas to help guide the uterus back to its rightful place. Another method involved the use of unpleasant herbs, either by smelling or swallowing them, to prompt the uterus to return to the lower abdomen.

The ancient Greeks adopted the Egyptians' interpretation of hysteria, but expanded the definition to include the inability to conceive and unwillingness to marry. Plato and Aristotle linked hysteria, which Plato referred to as female madness, to a lack of sexual activity, depicting the uterus of affected women as sad, bad, or melancholic. Hippocrates first introduced the term hysteria in the 5th century BCE. The Romans also associated hysteria with womb abnormalities, moving away from the idea of a wandering uterus. Instead, they attributed hysteria to diseases of the womb or reproductive disruptions like miscarriages and menopause. The theories of hysteria from the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans laid the groundwork for the Western understanding of the condition.

Between the fifth and thirteenth centuries, however, the increasing influence of Christianity in the Latin West altered medical and public understanding of hysteria. St. Augustine's writings suggested that human suffering resulted from sin; thus, hysteria became perceived as satanic possession. With the shift in the perception of hysteria came a shift in treatment options. Instead of admitting patients to a hospital, the church began treating patients through prayers, amulets, and exorcisms. At this time, writings such as Constantine the African's Viaticum and Pantegni described women with hysteria as the cause of amor heroycus, a form of sexual desire so strong that it caused madness, rather than viewing them as individuals with a problem who should be cured.

Trota de Ruggiero is regarded as the first female doctor in Christian Europe and the first gynecologist, although she could not become a magister. She recognized that women often felt ashamed to consult a doctor about gynecological issues and studied women's diseases while attempting to dispel common misconceptions and prejudices of the time. She prescribed remedies like mint for women suffering from hysteria. Hildegard of Bingen was another female doctor whose work aimed to integrate science and faith. She concurred with Hippocrates' theories and suggested that hysteria might be linked to the concept of original sin; she believed that both men and women were responsible for original sin and could both experience hysteria. Furthermore, during the Renaissance period, many patients diagnosed with hysteria were prosecuted as witches and subjected to interrogations, torture, exorcisms, and execution. At this time, the prevailing viewpoint was that women were inferior beings, a belief rooted in Aristotle's ideas of male superiority. Saint Thomas Aquinas supported this notion and stated in his writing, Summa Theologica, that "'some old women' are evil-minded; they gaze on children in a poisonous and evil way, and demons, with whom the witches enter into agreements, interacting through their eyes. " This fear of witches and sorcery influenced the rules of celibacy and chastity imposed on the clergy. Philippe Pinel believed there was little distinction between madness and health, advocating for the treatment of those who were unwell. He considered hysteria a female disorder.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, activists and scholars endeavored to reframe hysteria as a medical issue. Notably, French physician Charles Le Pois argued that hysteria originated in the brain. Additionally, English physician Thomas Sydenham proposed in 1697 that hysteria was tied to emotional factors rather than physical ones. This perspective encouraged many doctors to follow the examples set by Le Pois and Sydenham, separating hysteria from notions of the soul and reproductive organs. As science advanced, hysteria began to be associated more with the central nervous system. With a growing understanding of the nervous system, the neurological model of hysteria emerged, which reinforced the view of hysteria as a mental disorder. In 11, Joseph Raulin published a study linking hysteria to urban air quality, suggesting both men and women could experience hysteria, though he believed women were more prone to it due to laziness.

In 1859, Paul Briquet characterized hysteria as a long-lasting syndrome presenting various unexplained symptoms affecting different organ systems of the body. This concept later became known as Briquet's syndrome or somatization disorders in 1971. Over the span of ten years, Briquet conducted 430 case studies involving patients diagnosed with hysteria. Following Briquet, Jean-Martin Charcot examined women in a French asylum, utilizing hypnosis as a treatment method. Charcot carefully explored the complexities of hysteria, attributing its roots to patriarchy. He also guided Pierre Janet, a fellow French psychologist, who extensively studied five symptoms of hysteria (anesthesia, amnesia, abulia, motor control disorders, and character alteration) and suggested that these symptoms arose from lapses in consciousness. Both Charcot and Janet significantly influenced Freud, who theorized that hysteria was a result of childhood sexual abuse or repression. Briquet, Freud, and Charcot acknowledged the presence of male hysteria, indicating that both sexes could manifest the syndrome. Additionally, individuals with hysteria might manipulate their caregivers, complicating their treatment process.

L.E. Emerson was a Freudian who worked at the Boston Psychopathic Hospital and saw hysterical patients. Investigating the files, Elizabeth Lunbeck found that most of the hysterical patients at this hospital were typically single, either young or purposefully avoiding men due to past sexual abuse. Emerson published case studies on his patients and was interested in the stories they told, relating their narratives to sex and their inner sexual conflicts. Emerson stated that their hysteria, which ranged from self-harm to immense guilt for what happened, was due to the patients' traumas or a lack of sexual knowledge, which he believed resulted in sexual repression.

During the twentieth century, as psychiatry advanced in the West, diagnoses of anxiety and depression began to replace those of hysteria in Western countries. For example, from 1949 to 1978, annual admissions of hysteria patients in England and Wales decreased by roughly two-thirds. With the decline of hysteria patients in Western cultures came an increase in those diagnosed with anxiety and depression. Theories explaining the decline in hysteria diagnoses vary, but many historians infer that World War II, along with the use of the diagnosis of shell-shock, westernization, and migration shifted Western mental health expectations. Twentieth-century Western societies anticipated that depression and anxiety would manifest more in post-World War II generations and displaced individuals; thus, people reported or were diagnosed accordingly. Additionally, medical advancements clarified ailments previously attributed to hysteria, such as epilepsy or infertility. The World Wars prompted military doctors to focus on hysteria, as there appeared to be a rise in cases, particularly under conditions of high stress. In 1919, Arthur Frederick Hurst noted that "many cases of gross hysterical symptoms occurred in soldiers who had no family or personal history of neuroses, and who were perfectly fit. " In 1970, Colin P. McEvedy and Alanson W. Beard suggested that Royal Free Disease (Royal Free Hospital outbreak, now also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome, a neurological disease), which primarily affected young women, was an epidemic of hysteria. They also stated that hysteria had a historically negative connotation; however, that should not prevent doctors from assessing patient symptoms. In 1980, following a gradual decline in diagnoses and reports, hysteria was removed from the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), which had included hysteria as a mental disorder since its second publication in 1968.

The term continues to be used in the twenty-first century, though it no longer serves as a diagnosis. Nowadays, it is typically a broad term referencing any intense displays of anger or emotion.

A Personal Note from Robin

The Historical Claim:

Doctors in the 19th century supposedly used vibrators to induce “hysterical paroxysm” (basically, orgasm) in women diagnosed with hysteria, a catch-all medical term for various symptoms like anxiety, irritability, or sexual frustration.

Hysteria was a real (albeit now obsolete) diagnosis, often applied to women experiencing a wide range of emotional or physical complaints.

Doctors believed this was caused by a "wandering womb" or other reproductive imbalances.

"Paroxysm" was seen as a therapeutic release, not necessarily sexual, at least not acknowledged as such.

The Invention of the Vibrator:

To ease their labor and avoid hand fatigue, some doctors began using mechanical devices—what became early vibrators—to perform these treatments more efficiently.

These vibrators were initially medical tools, available in doctors’ offices before becoming consumer products in the early 20th century.

See also [ Hysteria (film) ]

Vibrators were among the first household appliances sold, even appearing in Sears catalogs in the early 1900s.

Myth vs. Reality:

A lot of the vibrator-hysteria narrative gained mainstream popularity through Rachel Maines’ 1999 book "The Technology of Orgasm", but historians have debated its accuracy.

Critics argue there’s no direct evidence in medical texts of the time that doctors knowingly induced orgasm.

It’s possible the practice was more clinical and less sexual than modern interpretations suggest.

See also [ Plutchik's Wheel of Emotions ]

Emotions